Saturday, August 31, 2019

Identity Research Paper Essay

Malcolm Rivers from the movie â€Å"Identity† has been diagnosed as a mentally ill patient with Dissociative Identity Disorder. This disorder is basically another name for a multiple personality disorder. The disorder is usually caused by severe trauma, emotional or physical, that causes people to create â€Å"multiple personalities† so that they can deal with certain situations. They usually have the inability to recall important information and have blackouts. Lastly, they have confusion of personal identity for an assumption of a new identity. The patient, Malcolm Rivers has committed several vicious murders and is waiting for execution. There is a journal that Rivers has explaining why he really committed the murders of all these people at a motel. His psychiatrist, Doctor Malick, tries to explain to the Judge who wants to have Rivers executed that he wasn’t responsible for the murders. The argument Dr. Malick made for it not being Malcolm Rivers fault is that it was one of his personalities because in his journal he has written down personal and private thoughts of several different people, which is a symptom of Dissociative Identity Disorder. Doctor Malick took Malcolm Rivers in front of the Judge and started questioning him to prove that he has multiple personalities. When he was questioning him though, he wasn’t Malcolm Rivers; he was â€Å"Ed†, the limo driver from the motel that everyone was getting murdered at. â€Å"Ed† keeps having these blackouts and this one blackout led him into the courtroom with Malick and the judge. â€Å"Ed† tells them what was happening at the motel and how it was bizarre that everyone was getting murdered and bodies were disappearing. In response to Malcolm Rivers or â€Å"Ed’s† story, Malick tells â€Å"Ed† about how he is really Malcolm Rivers. Rivers’ traumatic childhood has a strong effect on him, which made his personality fracture into different personalities. He remembers his mom as being â€Å"promiscuous† depending on whom she brought home he may also have been beaten as a child, and the disorder is caused by both mental and physical trauma. â€Å"Ed† found this really confusing, so Malick gave him a mirror that way he realized that he was just another personality. Malick also made another assumption that â€Å"Ed† and all the other people at the motel had the same birthdays. He told â€Å"Ed† that one of his fellow personalities is the one responsible for the murders, so once that personality dies, Malcolm Rivers won’t have to executed because he will be harmless. â€Å"Ed† thought that he finally identified the personality responsible for all of the murders. When he tried to kill it, both the personality and â€Å"Ed† die at the motel. Malick convinced the judge that the homicide identity is dead and Rivers should be harmless. Rivers was let off the execution and put into a mental asylum. Little did he know he actually killed the wrong personality, it was really Timmy, a little boy, the murdered everyone and set up their deaths. In Rivers’ head it showed Timmy was the one always watching the deaths of everyone, but he was so quiet no one suspected him. Timmy’s personality eventually dominated Rivers body and strangles Malick that crashes the truck going to the mental asylum. There are both positive and negative messages the movie gives the public about people with this disorder. One negative message it can give off is the impression that people with this disorder are dangerous murders, not all people with multiple personalities are dangerous or destructive. There are actually only a few cases that people with multiple personalities have criminal behavior. Another negative message is that it shows criminals can get away with a crime and be let off an execution if you have multiple personalities, a criminal does not get out of it that easily, they need to go through a long process of multiple professional physicians to prove they are criminally insane. Lastly, the personality ended up dominating Malcolm Rivers body in the end, so it can give off the idea to the public that this disorder can not be cured when it can. There are also positive messages that the movie gives off to the public that watches it. For one, it successfully shows the symptoms of a person with dissociative identity disorder. It can also give people a good idea that if they suspect someone they know has this disorder; you should get them to keep a diary to get down their personal thoughts so you can tell if they have it. Lastly, it shows that having a traumatic childhood can affect a person. That is a positive message because it can make people want to be better parents to their children after seeing what a bad childhood can do to someone. The journal article on dissociative identity disorder shows the four dominant approaches to understanding the disorder: childhood trauma and media influences. The posttraumatic model of dissociative identity disorder shows that the disorder is a defensive response that results naturally from continuous and tremendous childhood trauma, particularly from physical and sexual abuse. Children experiencing this trauma dissociate their distressing experiences and repress the memories of those experiences. This section of the article relates to the movie because his mom was â€Å"promiscuous†, so Malcolm most likely wanted to repress the memories from that time of his life. Another approach to understanding why people have this disorder would be media influences. There was an increased in the number of reported causes of dissociative identity disorder shown when the growth of popular books and movies about patients with multiple personalities. The movie itself did not have any media influences that made Malcolm Rivers have multiple personalities. However, the movie can give off a negative reaction to the public watching it because there might be more cases of dissociative identity disorder. In conclusion, Malcolm Rivers should be diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder from all the symptoms he has shown in the movie. The movie â€Å"Identity† is a great movie to watch, if someone wanted to learn more about the disorder or see an example of how a person diagnosed with dissociative identity acts. The journal article was also a good source because it backed-up one of the main causes of the disorder in the movie. Over all, the movie sends a good message to the public viewing it because the viewer can learn a lot about what causes the disorder, the symptoms of it, and they can be entertained at the same time. Traub, C. M. (2009). Defending a diagnostic pariah: validating the categorisation of Dissociative Identity Disorder. South African Journal of Psychology, 39(3), 347-356. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Cusack, J. (Actor). (2003). Identity [Motion picture]. USA: Sony Pictures. Nevid, J. S., Rathus, S. A., & Greene, B. (2008). Abnormal Psychology in a Changing World (Seven ed., pp. 1-630). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Friday, August 30, 2019

The Devil Wears Prada

Office-Politics lessons from â€Å"The Devil Wears Prada† Think you have the world’s worst boss? How does your boss measure up against the Boss-from-Hell? By Franke James, MFA The Devil Wears Prada will no doubt fuel some hot, haute water-cooler chat. Based on the novel by Lauren Weisberger, the film is a wickedly funny tale about working for a boss who is a tyrant (rumor has it that the book was inspired by Weisberger's stint at Vogue Magazine working for Anna Wintour). Meryl Streep stars as Miranda Priestly, Editor-in-Chief of Runway Magazine. Think Cruella de Ville with Medusa eyes. While the movie is an entertaining romp about the travails of working for a tyrannical boss, it raises some important questions: If you work for a Boss-from-Hell how do you cope? Is your boss a Boss-from-Hell? Is your boss bullying you or simply delivering a tough-love message? Are you a victim or just paying your dues? Does your boss thrive on chaos? Does your boss make impossible demands? Does your boss play the office politics game 1. Is your boss a Boss-from-Hell? Miranda quickly established her role as the ‘Master’ over her ‘Slave’ employees. She lived, ate, and breathed her career. Work and life had merged into one unified and indivisible whole. She expected everyone to have the same devotion to Runway Magazine. Employees time with family and friends was an expendable commodity, a frill. Miranda refused to address her new assistant Andy (Anne Hathaway) by her proper name, and substituted the name of her other assistant. She demanded that Andy be on call 24/7 (without adequate compensation) She gave a long list of demands without allowing any questions and expected employees to know the details of each task, but did not provide any training. She sent Andy on multiple errands, without clear instructions, and an impossibly short time-frame under threat of being fired if she did not deliver. She insulted her intelligence and mocked her style of dress, publicly and privately She forbade any employees from riding in the elevator with her, which further underlined a Master/Slave relationship. While some of these incidents, if taken alone, could be dismissed as ‘minor irritations’, collectively they amounted to psychological warfare. All of these ‘power-plays’ shared one thing in common: a lack of respect by the boss for the employee. How to cope: Stand up for yourself You have to stand up for yourself to get what you want with a Boss-from-Hell. Remember that they are more concerned about themselves than you. They are the ‘center of the universe'. So don’t take it personally that your boss can’t remember your name, or won’t take the time to delegate tasks properly. Your best strategy is to be quietly persistent and firm. Repeat back what tasks have been requested, and the expected timeline. If the boss is too impatient to listen, then send them a summary email or memo, before and after the task. Document everything. 2. Is your boss bullying you or simply delivering a tough-love message? No one likes to be ‘dressed-down’, especially in public. Miranda routinely demeaned Andy in front of the other employees by calling her insulting names, mocking her style of dress, her level of intelligence, and her ability to handle the job. The funny thing was that there was a grain of truth to Miranda’s criticisms. You can’t expect to work for a fashion magazine if you don’t know the product. The belligerent delivery was inexcusable but the underlying truth was that Andy was ignorant of fashion and she would not survive without changing, learning and growing. Miranda’s criticisms (but not her bullying tactics) could be viewed positively as a tough-love approach. How to cope: Share the company values (or exit) Miranda was setting up a challenge to Andy and every employee: conform to my standards or you are fired! This is not as unreasonable or evil as it appears at first glance. It raises a question that every employee should ask themselves. Am I not fitting in because I don’t share the company values? An extreme example: if you wanted to join the Hell’s Angels, you know that you’d have an easier time being accepted if you rode a motorcycle, dressed in leather, adorned your body with multiple tattoos, drank a two-four daily, and (perhaps) had some illegal activities on your record. Clearly if you are working in the fashion field then it is a safe assumption that you share the value that fashion is important. Andy rejected that value. She did not fit in because she did not wear the uniform. She knew it, but she didn’t care. She thought her brains were what really counted, not the surface decoration. Showing up for work in outfits that look like she rescued them from a thrift store was akin to waving a red flag in front of a bull. Unkempt hair, shapeless argyle blend polyester sweaters, frumpy plaid skirts, and clumpy clogs labeled Andy as an ignoramus of the fashion world. Andy needed to embrace the fashion culture in order to survive, and ultimately to be accepted. Not knowing that a Manolo Blahnik is a brand of shoe is like a carpenter not knowing what a hammer is. Dumb, dumb, dumb. But it does make for good comedy in the film. (Just don’t make the same mistake in your career. ) Since the product in this case was fashion, it was elementary logic that Andy should show respect by following the dress code. She was part of the Runway brand, as surely as the clothes-hanger models and glossy pages of their magazine. Andy’s career turned around in the second half of the movie after a fashion makeover. She finally accepted that she needed to ‘be the brand’ in order to excel at her job. She accepted the ‘shared value’. Miranda won a battle that should never have been an issue. If you don’t accept the shared values of a company then that company is not the right place for you. 3. Are you a victim or just paying your dues? In the movie Andy frequently told her boyfriend (whose birthday party she missed), that she had no choice. She whined constantly, â€Å"But I had no choice! Miranda called! † You don't have to be a tyrannical boss to want to wallop Andy with a big designer purse and yell, â€Å"Don’t answer the phone! Turn it off. † Andy was a willing victim. She chose to put her boss’ needs (and her career) ahead of her boyfriend. She decided that to climb the ladder she needed to work 24/7. Was that wrong? Not necessarily (besides the boyfriend is about as exciting as a heap of half-eaten mashed potatoes). But for Andy, whose true dream was to be a ‘serious’ journalist, the pain was not worth the gain. How to cope: Decide if it is a reasonable price To cope with a tyrannical boss, the most basic question you should ask yourself is whether the price in aggravation and stress in exchange for your weekly paycheque is worth it. If it’s not worth it, then you have two choices. #1. Create an action plan that will change the aspects of your job you find most difficult. #2. Ask yourself what better job you could move to — and what skills you need to acquire before you make the leap. 4. Does your boss thrive on chaos? Miranda did not have a well-oiled system. Things were constantly springing leaks. Tyrannical bosses need help — and not just psychiatric. At Miranda's company there was a crisis every hour. Employees were running around in a frenzied panic. Sadly, Miranda demanded perfection but was unwilling to develop a system to train her employees. Although many people admired her ability to run a fashion magazine, she was a poor manager of people. At the end of the movie she expressed relief that she would still be at the helm — saying under her breath that no one else could handle the job. Which was probably very true. She was irreplaceable because she ran the business on fear and chaos, and it would have imploded on her exit. How to cope: Create a well-ordered system To cope with the Boss-from-Hell, realize their shortcomings and compensate accordingly. In Miranda's case, the company lurched from mini-crisis to mini-crisis. A smart employee could have created systems to help run the place efficiently, smoothly and to minimize crisis. And then that employee would have been highly valued, and very marketable. 5. Does your boss make impossible demands? Miranda was forever making impossible demands of her employees. One hilarious example was when Miranda’s plane was grounded by a hurricane. Andy’s dinner with her out-of-town Dad was interrupted, while Andy tried valiantly to schedule another flight. Of course, the only thing that flew that night was the s–t hitting the fan when Miranda’s request for a flight was not met. How to Cope: Can you think two steps ahead of the boss? Putting aside the truly impossible demands, how do you stay two steps ahead of the boss? Anticipate what the boss will need, before they've even thought of it. That was the key to Andy's turnaround success. When Miranda asked for the impossible, a copy of an unpublished Harry Potter manuscript, Andy pulled strings to get it. But she proved herself to be a proactive thinker by getting the manuscript duplicated and bound (just in time for Miranda's twin daughters to read it on the train-ride to Grandma's). The coping strategy in this is not to take your boss' requests at face value. Think further down the road to what the next logical step is going to be. That devil-boss will be eating out of your hand. 6. Does your boss play the office politics game? Miranda is an expert office politics player. The climax of the movie occurs when Miranda becomes aware of an imminent coup that threatens to topple her (the magazine owner wants to give Miranda’s job to his sexy new mistress). But Miranda checkmates the move very effectively by threatening to steal ‘her’ high-profile fashion designers away to a rival publication. The owner grudgingly allows her to keep her Editor-in-Chief job, and offers his mistress an alternate, if largely titular, job. An unlucky pawn caught in the crossfire is Nigel, Miranda’s loyal design assistant. His ambitions get decimated, prompting Andy to virtuously claim that she could never backstab someone like that. Miranda corrects her and says, â€Å"Oh, but you already have. You did it to Emily. † This uncomfortable truth forced Andy to look in the mirror and make a decision as to what she wanted out of life, and how far she was willing to go to get it. How to Cope: Learn to play the office politics game To cope with the Boss-from-Hell, employees need to learn how to play office politics, whether they want to or not. Burying your head in the sand will not make it disappear. It is in your best interests to be aware of the shifting agendas, imbalances of power, hidden motives, and swift-moving unseen forces that are shaping your workplace. You need to become a student of human nature, which is ultimately what office politics is all about. Oh yeah, and to survive the Boss-from-Hell, document everything†¦ You never know when you may be able to turn it into a best-selling book or a hit movie starring an Oscar-winning actress. About the author: Franke James, MFA is the site founder of Office-Politics. com, and inventor of the Office-Politics Game. Office-Politics lessons from â€Å"The Devil Wears Prada†  © copyright 2006 Franke James. First publication: July 2006 ICFAI University Press, Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India. All photographs: The Devil Wears Prada – 2006 copyright 20th Century Fox. The Devil Wears Prada starring Anne Hathaway, Meryl Streep, Stanley Tucci, Simon Baker, Emily Blunt. Directed by David Frankel. Based on the novel by Lauren Weisberger. The Devil Wears Prada The novel â€Å"The Devil Wears Prada† by Weisberger is about a girl named Andrea moved to New York and found a job as a junior assistant of a fashion magazine editor. However, Andrea has a hard time on her job. Furthermore, her relationships with her family and friends get very bad because she is too hard-working. However, at the end of this novel Andrea makes her own way out by her careful and wisdom. After reading the novel, I found myself and the protagonist of the novel, Andrea are both too hard-working and careful. Andrea and I are both so hard working that we forgot our families and friends. In the novel, Andrea is working very hard that she put all her time and energy into her job, so Andrea does not have any time for her family and friends. For example, in the novel Andrea promise to call her boyfriend at three o’clock, but she was very busy at her work that she never gets to call her boyfriend the whole day. I was very busy at work once, and I totally forgot to tell my mother that I will be getting off from work one hour later than usual. My mother was waiting for me at the supermarket one hour. Furthermore, I found myself and Andrea are both very careful that we notice or remember small things that others do not. Andrea finally made her boss approve with her ability because Andrea is very careful and she notices and remembers things that her boss does not. For instance, Andrea and her boss went to a big fashion party in Paris, and there were so many famous fashion designers. Many people came and greet to Andrea’s boss, but her boss does not recognize any of them. However, Andrea memorizes all guests name by flipping through guests list. After that her boss was very impress on Andrea’s careful. I found myself is very similar to Andrea. I always remember to check the address of the place we are going to, when all of my friends forgot to check. I enjoy reading this book very much because I have the same personality characteristic, too hard-working and careful, with the protagonist, Andrea. I will recommend this novel to English-second language readers because the novel is easy to understand and interesting.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

A Hard Life is No Excuse for Poor Academics Essay

All too often people treat community college students are inferior to students of large universities, even believing that community college students are expected to be less successful. Doing this lowers students’ morale and makes them feel they are unworthy of obtaining gainful employment or even raising their own standards. Though this lowers morale, having a hard life absolutely is no excuse for having excessive absences, rewrites, late papers, plagiarized work, or instructors with low standards who do not require the students to adjust as needed to succeed. As a community college student, the education I am working so hard to gain has been scoffed at and even mocked. Once while having a casual conversation with a co-worker, he asked what college I attend. I told him Spartanburg Community College and he replied â€Å"that isn’t a college, it’s a technical school.† This is a prime example of how students from community colleges are treated as inferior to students of a large university. Students from every institution can suffer hardships and handle their hardships in their own way. I have seen a student who was battling cancer and still holding a B average. On the other hand, there are also students who are just lazy and that lackadaisical attitude shows in their academics. In the article â€Å"The Myth of Inferiority† T. Allen Culpepper stated: At both kinds of institutions, I have also found students who manage to complete a full load of classes successfully while working three jobs, rearing multiple children alone, caring for elderly relatives, and coping with chronic illness or disability, as well as students who take a relatively light load of courses and don’t do much else (except illicit drugs) but still manage to fail all their classes, despite considerable intelligence and ability. (330) What this all comes down to is how hard a student is willing to work on their education. The more students see instructors accepting lackluster work from lackadaisical students, the more the attitude spreads. This is where the instructor comes in. Accepting students’ excuses and excessive absences, allowing rewrites, late papers, and plagiarized work gives the instructor and in turn the institution a bad reputation. With the world literally at everyone’s finger tips, thanks to the internet, no one has the excuse that they weren’t able to at least attempt to complete and submit assignments on time and without plagiarism. Thankfully, there are instructors who don’t believe this is helpful. If asked why he would do well as a community college instructor Culpepper said he would reply, â€Å"I have learned to maintain high standards, expect students to meet them, and do whatever I can to help students meet those expectations.† After which he goes on to explain, â€Å"To lower our standards is to accept the false assumption that students â€Å"here† are inferior to students â€Å"there.†(331) In any college, students may have to adjust to a different form of learning than they are familiar with, but to change a teaching style to appease students is ridiculous. â€Å"In my experience, most students respond favorably to professors who teach well and respond negatively to professors who teach badly, regardless of the teaching methods employed.†(331) Treating someone as though they are beneath you is disrespectful and, if in a position of power, may be considered discriminatory. Though negative words don’t leave visible scars they do leave emotional scars that can turn a once successful student into a struggling, hopeless student. We are all equal and should treat each other as we would like to be treated. The sooner the world as a whole practices this, the sooner bias and discrimination can become a thing of the past. Works Cited Culpepper, T. Allen. â€Å"The Myth of Inferiority.† The Norton Mix. Ed. Judy Sieg. New York; Norton, 2012. 327-31. Print.

Developing Education in Saudi Arabia Research Paper

Developing Education in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example Religion trained in this way is also a mandatory subject for all university learners. As a result, Saudi Arabian youths lack the education and methodological skills the private sector requires" (Al-Ahmed, 2010). This Education System has stifled analytical thought, and as a result, the education curriculum does not favor advancement and resourcefulness; both of which are important to the development. This education system also focuses on the Arabic language so much that the English language is not giving any importance; thus the students find it difficult learning in the English language, in higher education. Therefore, something needs to be done to change the focus of education from the traditional Saudi techniques of memorization and rote education mainly in religious teachings in Arabic towards encouraging students to analyze and issue-solve as well as creating a worldlier and vocationally based literacy system that can only be taught in English. For this to be achieved, the Engli sh language needs to be mastered first. Company background (Al-wahhab, 1970) says that in Saudi Arabia, children aged 3–5 years go to kindergarten. On the other hand, attendance of nursery schools is not mandatory for enrollment of first grade of primary schools. Pre-schools are not part of the official education system. Some privately owned nurseries have come up with technical and financial help from the government. In accordance to Saudi Arabia’s government data, 100,714 children (51,364 males and 49,350 females) were in pre-primary education in 2007. The average enrollment rate was 10.8% in total; 11.1% boys and 10.4% girls according to UNESCO. This shows that there... This paper stresses that effective learner centered methods of teaching usually has positive results in student outcome. Teaching the English language in both primary and secondary will give a positive result if technology is used. Research indicates that computer technology can help support learning and is especially useful in developing the higher-order skills of critical thinking. This report makes a conclusion that this suggests that students can benefit from technology-enhanced collaborative learning methods and the interactive learning process. The integration of technology in teaching the English language and all other subjects in the English language will make the learning process interesting; in that the learners will be intrigued and eager to use technology in learning. The curriculum will be installed in the computers in the English language; to enable learners do private studies and practice reading on computers that will help in pronunciation and spelling even without the help of the teacher. Technology will also help fasten the realization of improving students’ results in higher education and other levels of education, as well. I would recommend for all recommendations of this report to be implemented immediately so as rectify the situation in the country’s higher education. The author of the paper says that the changes will also affe ct the general performance of all other subjects in they are followed in the teaching of the various subjects. There is a need for change, in the educational system, in Saudi Arabia.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Organizational Behavior Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Organizational Behavior - Movie Review Example Similarly, Nanny employs the goal setting and reinforcement theories. She is committed to changing the children’s behavior by teaching them the five lessons. Fundamentally, goal-setting theory centers on devising targets, showing commitment, and creating support systems (Borkowski, 2011). The employment of the reinforcement theory is evident when the children pretend to have contracted measles. Nanny punishes the children by giving them concoctions while indoors (Doran & Jones, 2006). The application of attribution theory is evident in the Nanny McPhee movie. Borkowski (2011) contends that attribution theory centers on the way and the reason people explain events in a certain manner. Attributions inform the behavioral and emotional responses (Borkowski, 2011). Nanny identified that destructive and unbearable behavior of the children, and planned on a workable way to change them. The spirit of optimism pointed by Borkowski motivated Nanny to endeavor to change the children’s behavior. The children were unruly to everyone, including Mr. Brown (Doran & Jones, 2006). Similarly, Nanny McPhee promoted the psychological closeness that enabled the children to adjust their

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Famine (global issue) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Famine (global issue) - Research Paper Example Globally, a high number of people are faced with food problems, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Asia, Latin America and North America. Famine results free free-market processes that have restructured the global economy, dating back to the debt crisis of the early 1980s. Famine as a phenomenon has been ongoing for a while. Modern scholars define famine in terms of a short-term effect of supply and demand for agricultural goods. Famine is a global issue, although many people attribute it to the developing world. This paper focuses on famine as a problem facing the world in general. While many countries rarely face famines in these modern times, it still remains a disturbing, yet controversial issue. The argument that developing countries are faced with higher chances of famine strikes, the assumption that developing countries are immune is not true. History has demonstrated that famine can strike at any time to whichever country, without necessarily the country being economi cally struggling. Natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes and drought have been found to be the biggest contributors of memorable famines in the history of the calamity. By addressing the major factors causing famines and instances in which major famines happened in the world, the paper seeks to prove that famine is a global issue. ... Increase in global inflationary levels has seen a steady increase in general global food prices with time. Statistics reveal that increase in food prices has contributed significantly to the increase in global famine levels. In some cases, famine effects have been so devastating that it almost escalated into a crisis. An example of such a country is Haiti, where food prices rose at an average rate of 40 percent in less than a year, with rice prices doubling. Famine is caused by acute hunger, characterized by short-term problems of food security that develops to intensive levels (Digby, 102). Famine is one of the major challenges facing human beings in the modern day world, claiming lives of a lot of people in third world countries, most of which fall in the African continent, Asia and Latin America. The other challenges that have similar devastating effects to humanity in the world are diseases such as HIV/AIDs and cancer. Many people have perished in times of hunger due to starvatio n. Although still at high levels, the current rates of famine in the world have reduced significantly. Stringent measures have been put to ensure that occurrence of famine incidences such as those that faced the world in the 19th century are not experienced again. The UN has through the United Nations Food Development Program (UNFDP) tried to save people from such adverse situations. The Red Cross also carries such a program like the relief food program to provide food to the hunger stricken areas. Such organizations, operating globally, dedicated to ensuring that people have enough food during times of hunger, show that famine is a global issue. Effects

Monday, August 26, 2019

Analysis of a movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of a movie - Essay Example is an art of making motion pictures, encompasses different criteria or qualities by which its aesthetic quality can be evaluated depending on the person viewing it. Thereby, its classification as a beautiful film depends on the subjective nature of the person who viewed it. It is in this regard that this essay is written to present an analysis of Rain Man in terms of addressing the following questions: (1) keeping in mind what you have learned in class thus far about literary elements, what does this movie mean to you? (2) What is this movie really about? (3) Is there a "moral to the story," a theme to be explored, or comment to think about? (4) What is the point of the movie? And (5) did you find this movie meaningful for you personally? Why or why not? Rain Man is a movie an uplifting experience through the spectacular performance of the actors, both Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise. For me, it is one of the best movies I have seen and have continued to remember so far due to the theme and the characters of the movie. The most critical factors that qualify a film or movie as good in my own conviction are as follows: (1) a good plot (or the content of the story), (2) the quality and choice of casts, (3) genre, (4) excellent audio visual quality, (5) cinematography (or the form which is the actual beauty of fine art) and (6) moral or message of the story. Contemporary films do not necessarily comply with the standards of aesthetic quality despite the developments and utilization of technology to apply special effects. In fact, according to Osider (2009), â€Å"lately, the blockbuster has fallen into the habit of replacing beautiful form with thrills. These films contain mainly shallow themes and impressive special effects. The audience might like the film, but again that does not make it a good one.† An aesthetically crafted film should show a good quality that not only entertains but inspires. The content and form combine beautifully to create film art. Osider

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Assault Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assault - Essay Example 774). A sexual battery kit offers evidential value to prove that an assault has occurred; a medical professional can collect evidences of the assault through a head-to-toe exam. The examination takes into account the physical injuries of the victim and during the examination the physician can take the blood, urine, saliva, pubic hair combings, or nail samples so that they can be used as evidences in rape cases. However, it is imperative that the victim seeks sexual battery exam kit soon after the assault has taken place for better results. Another advantage of the sexual battery kit is that the victim can keep his/her rights intact and can ask for confidentiality if he/she wishes to do so. As such, the consent of the victim is a necessary prerequisite in the case of sexual assault examinations and the examination is often accompanied by follow up treatment whereby the victim gets alleviated of the mental and psychological trauma associated with the assault. There is no doubt that the sexual battery examination kit has been instrumental in bringing many of the perpetrators to the courts and the evidences obtained through the sexual assault examinations have been considered as valid evidences by the

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Management measures Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Management measures - Research Paper Example However, the education system cannot be blamed entirely for this improper mismanagement of personal money, since improper money management is a personal decision. Besides, there are many institutions that should guide an individual on proper time management. This paper analyses how improper money management has affected youths adversely, and what has caused this. The educational system and the interplay of many factors have contributed to these rising cases. These factors include; lack of parental guidance, dysfunctional family units and the economy of the nation. The way society treats suicide varies widely depending on the culture and religion of the affected. All in all, many cultures view taking one’s own life as improper and unjustified. Suicide is a culmination of life frustrations and suffering, whereby, an individual opts to take his/ her life so as to avoid these frustrations. Can this be attributed to improper money management solely? The answer is no. It is true tha t improper mismanagement of money in the society has led to these individuals opting to commit suicide but still life is a struggle, and by missing money does not mean that one should opt for suicide. The educational system mould individuals to be noteworthy managers of time and resources. However, much of this emphasis on money management comes later in life. It is rare for schools to teach pupils in elementary and high school on money management since these students are far from earning. Much of the emphasis is during college and university life. Depending on the individual, this may be sufficient or insufficient in molding life decisions. The educational system has changed very much, in that students are completing school young and most of these students are thrown into the world as young and inexperienced people. They end up earning good salaries, but, due to their inexperience, they spend it unwisely and do not make wise life decisions. This can be blamed on the educational sys tem. Back then, students would complete school fairly older, and this ensured that they had a sense of maturity going into the outside world. These students would be able to handle the rigors and demands of the post-school life, and this ensured that they would be able to spend their money wisel

Friday, August 23, 2019

Excluding all finance and accounting courses, what has been your Essay

Excluding all finance and accounting courses, what has been your favorite course taken as an undergraduate and why - Essay Example Another aspect of marketing that makes the course my favorite is its broad functionality. Marketing equips one with skills useful to almost any organization that seeks to promote itself and remain competitive. Knowledge of consumer psychology presents a fascinating experience that I view as an opportunity to better my understanding of business processes. Learning the role of psychology in consumer marketing was an important aspect that made me like the course. The course allows students to carry out field research together, and this provides an opportunity for me to develop my research skills. I also like the fact that the course allows me to evaluate commercials for stereotypes and gender identity. Conclusively, marketing as a course has provided me with skills that I feel will serve as a competitive advantage in the job

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Effect of video games on Kids Essay Example for Free

Effect of video games on Kids Essay Growing up, playing outside was what I did for fun. Whether it was riding my bike, playing with friends, or swimming, I was outside for hours at a time every day. Today, kids have access to things like Xboxes, Playstations, and Nintendo DS. In a study conducted by Gentile, Lynch, Linder Walsh (2004) adolescent girls played video games for an average of 5 hours a week, whereas boys averaged 13 hours a week. A survey done by Harris Interactive shows that 23 percent of youth have felt â€Å"addicted to video games. † Studies have shown that teenagers who play violent video games for extended periods of time tend to be more aggressive, are more prone to engage in fights and confrontations, and see a decline in academic success. (Gentile et al) In 2010, Robert Weis and Brittany Cerankosky conducted a study to see how video games affect academic success. They selected a group of boys who didn’t own video games and assigned them to one of two conditions: the â€Å"video games now† group got a game system immediately, and the â€Å"video games later† group didn’t receive their systems until months later. The researchers tracked the boys’ academic success at school. They found that the boys who got their game systems immediately spent less time on schoolwork and, 4 months later, they got lower reading and writing scores. This makes sense, since more time spent playing video games means less time studying. Also, the distraction of video games can cause kids to lose interest in their studies and cause them to fall behind. These results line up with another survey done by Cummings and Vandewater in 2007, which concluded that kids aged 10-19 who played video games spent 30% less time reading and 34% less time doing homework. (Cummings Vandewater) A 2009 Brigham Young University study found that as video game usage increased, the quality of relationships with others, including family, friends, and other peers, decreased. The BYU Study found that daily video game users were twice as likely to use drugs. They were three times as likely to use drugs over those who never played games. This doesn’t mean that all kids who play video games are going to go out and do drugs, but it certainly doesn’t help anything. If a child spends hours at a time playing video games, they will have no time to form relationships and socialize, not giving them the social skills they may need to succeed in the future. This can set them up for failure in job interviews, school, and in building solid relationships that are crucial to every teenager’s life. However, there are also many positive elements of video games. According to Chacha Tumbokon, a psychologist at De La Salle University, video games can give kids betters skills in areas such as following directions, problem solving and logic, and hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills. Often times the player is asked to follow commands or prompts in a video game in order to gain rewards or status, which aids with following directions. Also, when there is a challenge in a game, it doesn’t get solved easily; the player is often forced to work through many riddles or obstacles in order to succeed—another important life lesson for a child to learn. And lastly, video games require a great deal of hand-eye coordination. Often times games require the player to change viewpoints with one control, move with another control, and do actions (shooting, jumping, etc. ) with another control. This builds up hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills, which is a good workout for the brain. Another common aspect of games is resource management. There are often a limited number of resources (such as lives, power-ups, money, etc. ) that has to be managed in order to succeed in a game. This is another valuable lesson that many kids should learn in their lifetime. James Paul Gee, professor of education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, says that playing a video game is similar to working through a science problem. There is a lot of trial and error involved, which teaches a child inductive reasoning and hypothesis testing, something that can be used in many areas of life. In conclusion, there are many positive and negative effects of video games. Psychologists suggest that parents monitor the games that are being played by their children and make sure the games aren’t affecting the child’s behavior.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Friendship or interpersonal relationship Essay Example for Free

Friendship or interpersonal relationship Essay The elderly in this study regarded friendship/interpersonal relationship differently and this difference was reflected in the data analysis. As suggested by the findings, many of them seemed not to be interested in getting closer or establishing friendship with others even with the co-residents of the home. Probably the theoretical reason behind this apparent ‘detachment’ could be found in the disengagement theory on aging. It postulates that as people age, they progressively withdraw from social, physical, and emotional interaction with the world. The long standing friendships from the past and the current friendship among the elderly in the home for the aged contributed much to the well-being/happiness of a little more than half of the total participants, the elderly. Friends appear to be most significant to older adults as a source of enjoyment, socializing, and talking about â€Å"good old times† which results in satisfaction with life (Campbell, 1976). The findings expounded that only half of the participants had this influence of friendship on their life whereas the other half did not. The following assertion of Pinquart, Sorensen (2000) would explain this situation: As friends are typically members of the same age group and often share personal characteristics, cohort experiences, life styles; higher similarity in values and experiences may promote a higher satisfaction with friendships and thus a larger influence of friendship on SWB in old age. Authority and Caregivers. The third meaningful relationship among the institutionalized elderly which gave satisfying results in their life was their relationhip with the people in responsibility or in other words the significant people in their present stage and situation of life. According to Carstensen et al. (1996, in Pinquart, Sorensen, 2000) close and long-term contacts are important and give individuals a sense of stability in their past and anticipated future, especially among elderly persons. The findings in the study showed there was a general consensus that the elderly maintained a positive relationship with the authority. It gave them a sense of importance, feeling of security and it affirmed their sense of worth. This friendly relationship seemed to be positively affecting the subjective experience of wellbeing of the institutionalized aged because as several studies have shown most elderly individuals expect emotional support from their children/family members (Ignersoll-Dayton Antonicci, 1988), and this â€Å"invisible providers† are being substituted by the authority and the caregivers in the institutional set up. Besides, positive relationships are helpful in dealing with stressors, which in turn enhance SWB (Sorensen Pinquart, 2000). Studies have also established that people supported by close relationships with family, friends, or other support groups are less vulnerable to ill health and premature death (Doress-Worters Siegel, 1994). Social Interest/Altruism The results reflected that social interest had considerable impact on the sense of wellbeing experienced by the elderly though not many in the home for the aged. The elderly’ interest in reaching out/altruism is supported by findings in the study done by Ryff (1989) on middle aged and older men and women. His study had proven that altruism is highly correlated to sense of well-being as it gave a sense of meaning and fulfillment in the lives of the respondents. According to Thomas Chambers (1989) empathy and altruism are manifestations of social interest and the greatest regret associated with decline of physical ability among the aged is the decreasing ability to engage in â€Å"social work. † The findings showed what Victor Frankl said to be true: a sense of life meaning ensues when we learn to transcend ourselves, when we have forgotten ourselves and become absorbed in someone or something outside of us (As cited in West, 2000). The findings also brought to light a reality that in general many of the elderly of the study were found to be more â€Å"self-oriented† than â€Å"other-oriented† and did not want to engage in any social activities notwithstanding the fact that many of them do reach out to others in their own limited capacity. This observation could be tied up with the disengagement theory that as people age they progressively withdraw from social, physical, and emotional interaction with the world. As they gradually disengage themselves, the society too withdraws from its engagement with the aging person. Interestingly, a few of the elderly felt that they have already done enough and it was their time for rest and didn’t want to be socially involved in any way. This behavioral pattern found in the nature of the elderly could one way be justified the light of the observation made by Warr, Miles Platts, (2001). Older people were found to be, for instance, more conscientious, traditional and careful in interaction with others, and less sociable, outgoing, change oriented and career oriented. Given this milieu, the question arises, as other studies have already indicated if social interest or altruism is one of the contributing factors toward experiencing a subjective sense of well-being among the elderly, how this finding could be explained in the context of the elderly of this study. It is also questionable whether the reason for this withdrawal is due to their status transition, the experience of ‘dethronement’: and the message conveyed to them that they are no longer useful or wanted by the family and the society. Butler et al. (1998) observed that ordinarily, elderly people regard institutionalization as a last resort as they perceive it is a kind of ‘abandonment. ’ This can result in a loss of self-esteem (Suh Suh, 1999) of the once independent, proud, revered persons when they are dispelled into an insignificant existence in a home which is not their home. This is yet to be explored whether the disengagement of theory on aging happen to be a self-fulfilling prophecy in the lives of the elderly.

Inter Professional Education Reflective Account Nursing Essay

Inter Professional Education Reflective Account Nursing Essay Throughout my time on the Year 1 Inter Professional Education (IPE) programme, I have compiled this portfolio consisting of a reflective account on my performance in throughout the programme. Included in this file are a number of secondary resources utilised in constructing the account as well as in aid of assembling the team presentation. My IPE group consisted of 4 medical, 2 pharmacy and 3 nursing students. As a multidisciplinary team, we collectively produced a presentation regarding clinical communication and ethical considerations in patient centred healthcare. Our theme was based around the growing issue of underage pregnancies throughout the capital. The wider issues of this topic ranging from the ethical, psychological, and moral implications as well as the great variety of healthcare professionals involved in managing such incidences. We chose this topic as it was something the whole group had differing views on and wanted to explore further. A copy of the article, Policy disaster as teen pregnancy rate rises to its highest in 10 years, is included for the benefit of the reader. This article from the Times Online was the key inspiration behind our choice of topic as it outlines the huge extent of the problems posed by teenage pregnancies. According to the article Britain has the highest incidence of teenage pregnancies in Western Europe. Despite the highly sensationalist tone and the incomprehensive survey of the contributing factors of teenage pregnancy, the article does offer a fascinating introspection into the ethical issues regarding pregnancy among girls below 16, the age of consent. The slideshow utilized during the team presentation, Yvonne at the clinic, is included for the benefit of the reader. As one can see it contains the key concepts the team touched upon during the presentation which was interspersed with a model role-play featuring a consultation at a sexual health clinic. Moreover, the script for the role-play has also been enclosed to help the reader appreciate the teams corroboration in conveying current issues integrated in a model scenario. Please find enclosed further evidence highlighting our effective teamwork comprising of emails, peer review forms and a diary of progress which had been logged between the IPE sessions. The essential features of a team and how it develops have been explained by Tuckmans summary of team development (1965). The model was used as a reference point for the groups progress, evaluate the teams development and to contemplate the next stage of action. The reflective account further vindicates how Tuckmans summary is clearly not exhaustive in describing the great spectrum of team behaviours. Instead, the IPE programme has enlightened the view that group dynamics are variable and so mechanical. Therefore the unpredictability arising amongst different teams, especially multi and possibly more vast amongst inter-disciplinary teams reinforces the belief that there are many contributors which affect group work. To conclude, I hope the reader finds the following account and secondary sources beneficial. In the time that has been allocated, I have tried my utmost to submit an honest account of my contribution to the IPE programme. Sincerely, Reflective Account In this reflective account, I will evaluate and analyse my performance as a team member throughout the IPE programme using the Kolb (1984) cycle1. David Kolb argues that experience is the source of learning and development. The cycle constitutes the following four stages; Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualisation and Active experimentation. Kolbs cycle suggests it is necessary to reflect on an experience, evaluate it and formulate concepts, which can then be applied to new situations such as working in a multidisciplinary team (MDT) 2. CAIPE uses the phrase interprofessional education (IPE) as a generic term which occurs when two or more professions learn with, from and about each other to improve collaboration and the quality of care CAIPE (2007)3. Our team consisted of nine people (four medical, three nursing and 2 pharmacy students). The application of an inquiry based learning (IBL) technique, would allow us to enhance our problem solving and communication skills. Over a period of five weeks, the team managed to present an ethical case study conveying the importance of communicative efficacy and ethical considerations within MDTs in providing patient centred care. In this paper I incorporate theoretical principles to the teams performance4-7 in a bid to divulge a deeper understanding of how and why I improve specific areas of my performance as a team member. Concrete Experience In the first IPE session, our objective was to decide the focus of our inquiry. Right from the onset, to my disbelief, the group was extremely focused and driven to the task at hand. Initially I was hesitant mainly due to the exposure of so many strangers with varying personalities but equally eager to think aloud4. This threatening situation meant that any early communication was difficult and for a considerable amount of time I found myself very quiet8. The reason for this was that my views towards this task were initially sceptical because of previous prejudices held against other disciplines. However, as the meeting progressed, I learnt that such presumptions had no basis and had arisen due to a lack of contact between the disciplines. A consensus was reached within the group to carry out our task along the lines of teenage pregnancy among girls below 16 and the wider implications it acquires. The session also included a simulated patient interview, which proved very informative and clearly highlighted the fundamental concepts of a consultation; rapport, empathy, body language, active listening and question styles. By the second session the group had conducted some research on loosely related material regarding the growing problem of teen pregnancies in the UK. In this student led session, we made a decision to commence the planning of the actual task. This was a very time consuming step to achieve as fellow members failed to comprehend the purpose of the goals we had set, since our task had a large scope and appeared vague. I felt it was my duty to urge the group to clear any misconceptions at this early stage and to channel our broad research into three specific concepts which are imperative to portray to our aud ience. I put particular emphasis on the current NHS guidelines, ethical issues and relevant multidisciplinary team approaches concerning the scenario5. Our concrete material which would provide the foundational premise for the duration of the course was provided by an article claiming Policy disaster as teen pregnancy rate rises to its highest in 10 years9. This article presents great scope for discussion including the ethical issues and the role of MDTs in managing such a growing problem. According to Bruce Tuckman (1965) there are a number of key issues relating to effective team discussion and behaviour10. Stage 1 is the forming phase and it depicts a teams natural instinct for guidance. Therefore, the premise for advancement for a particular group resides in the election of a leader. When discussing and deciding the topic for our presentation it became clear that certain individuals were more confident than others and my substantial contributions during the second session5, led me to assume leadership. Although my position involved delegating specific tasks to individuals, the group as a whole was very diplomatic and hence there was no need for an autocratic leader. As a result of this, the storming phase, which Tuckman described as the episode where decisions are most challenging, was a much rapid and unproblematic phase. This was because we all had a genuine interest in the topic and felt we each could contribute to the issue. The allocation of roles was carried out based on prior research. For instance, the individual whom had researched the healthcare team had the task of producing their own slide for the PowerPoint presentation. In addition the norming process of Tuckmans model was also coming into the fore as our keen actors6 were making great progress in their role-play of a consultation at a sexual health clinic. My contribution to the presentation consisted of a brief explanation of the importance of consent and whether a minor can consent to their own treatment (i.e. Gillick case, Fraser guidelines) 11, 12. Overall, continual discussion and communication between members mainly via emails enabled the presentation to evolve into the polished product which portrayed the efficient performing (final) phase of Tuckmans model. The team worked in an efficient manner after a sluggish start. The initial reservations were quickly diminished which helped us to progress towards our goals. During the days leading to the final presentation, I and a colleague realised some discrepancies in the script and the issue of a dress code for the team presentation was brought up6. Such concerns were clarified by email communication13, but unfortunately such enthusiasm was only shared amongst a few peers. Nevertheless, it was very satisfying to see that everyone had contributed something to the final presentation which was a sentiment to my effective delegation of roles14. I felt that a certain member had not contributed much throughout the course and was continually seeking a minimalist approach which could have been detrimental to the teams performance. I voiced my opinions in her peer review form so she could improve in the future as the potential adverse consequences of a breakdown of communication within the MDT can be damaging to the patients care. The roles conducted by the team members varied from communication, ethical issues and the role-play. Margerison and McCann (1995)15 constructed a teamwork model stating a successful team encompasses individuals with a variety of skills, hence fulfilling diverse roles. All the team members were, to differing extents, creators innovators as we each contributed something constructive. I believe certain members whom had thought of the idea of a role-play were more creative and others whom had continually produced their contributions on time were deemed concluders. Another individual whom had taken the responsibility of merging the slideshow together expressed her practical skills as an assessor, whilst another member helped to support me in my leadership role. Her efforts were invaluable in making by duties more proficient and constantly reminding me to book the library rooms for scheduled meetings. She was classified, according to the teamwork model, as an upholder. Finally, the indiv iduals involved in the role-play were concluders due to their quality standards and reporters because they were capable of incorporating prior knowledge to help answer questions following the presentation. I feel that I was a thruster because as a democratic leader it was my duty to organise and motivate other members, whilst continually involving them in the decision making process. Reflective Observation After the presentations, we took part in a peer review exercise, where our observations of each others performance throughout the course had to be reflected. The irony of teamwork is that a team is made up of individuals. These individuals will have different experiences, knowledge, expectations and priorities. Thus it is important that our team developed a keen interest in the performance as a whole, as this will influence individual contributions. Amongst the majority of peer review forms, I noticed many positive comments ranging from being knowledgeable on the subject of consent8, good at arranging ideas and has good delegation skills ensures everybody has an equal role to play14. This was extremely pleasing to learn because it illustrates that my fellow team members fully appreciated the effort that I put into the project. Also, my contribution to the presentation as a team player was also acknowledged stating I had contributed the knowledge and understanding of capacity and cons ent which helped to explain the patients rights in our role-play helped the nurses learn about the Gillick test, which until then we had no understanding of16. I believe this statement portrays my effective communication amongst the team throughout the programme enabling the group to maximise our potential to work in an MDT approach. Amongst the very few negative comments, a team member justifiably observed that I was a bit quiet at the start of the IPE session8. In retrospect, I believe I should have been more expressive and honest with my group and have confidence in making alternative suggestions ultimately benefiting the group. Furthermore, another team member felt I could have taken more control/been more decisive so that people were clear of what to do17. It was interesting to note that he/she had also written that I was good at sorting out the details i.e. what exactly each person was going to go away and research17. Nonetheless, I felt that I delegated the tasks suitably because I had ensured that each member understood and had ownership of their tasks for the next session. Although the issue had never been brought up nor had I been emailed of any confusion in the allocation of roles, I believe that I should have utilized the luxury of emailing each member clearly what they had to do. Abstract conceptualisation From this experience, I have gained a lot of knowledge both on the issues regarding underage pregnancies as well as the skills required to work effectively in a team. My fellow members had enlightened me of the growing problem of teen pregnancies in certain boroughs around the capital and we all felt the government was failing this young generation. According to the article mentioned earlier, The expansion of confidential contraceptive services for young people under 169 was the main causal factor. I learnt through an inquiry based learning approach the importance of effective clinical communication and ethical considerations in managing the issue. Furthermore, a fellow member also enlightened the group on the vital role of the sexual health centres in providing education and advice for the younger generation. I have also discovered the challenges associated with controlling large teams of varying disciplines. Apart from the logistical constraints, each member of the team had their own schedule and hence the proposition of extra sessions was difficult to attain. However, many challenges and complications were dealt with very effectively via email13, thus eliminating the scheduling and logistical constraints in place. Coordinating nine members of a team demanded good organisational and most importantly time management skills. This is enormously beneficial for me because as I progress through my medical career, there is an increasing demand for efficient teamwork. Active experimentation On reflection it is clear that our team worked very well together and expressed ourselves to construct an effective presentation of the chosen scenario. The Egalitarian atmosphere during the meetings was admirable, where every decision involved a vote of confidence. Nevertheless I feel as group leader I should have struck a balance between collective decision making and being more abrupt, as well as ensuring that all the tasks are being conducted well. Also in the future, fewer people could have presented the final task. A solution could have been to make a video for the role play, thereby freeing up more space for other members of the team on the stage. Overall, the IPE programme has been an incredible learning curve which has provided an insightful experience as well as an understanding of the significance of effective communication between professionals. Lastly, this experience has emphasized my weaknesses, but I have appreciated that others may have different ways of working; different skills and knowledge, which in practice contribute to the patients healthcare.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Cultural Literacy According To E.d. Hirsch :: Education Literacy Educational Essays

According to E.D. Hirsch, to be culturally literate is to possess the basic information to thrive in the modern world. It is the "grasp on the background information that writers and speakers assume their audience already has." In his book, Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know, Hirsch sets forth 5,000 essential words and phrases of which each person should be knowledgeable. The list ranges from idioms to mythology, from science to fairy tales. Why has this list prompted a notable debate on our country's educational standards? E.D. Hirsch believes that the literacy of American people has been rapidly declining. The long range remedy for restoring and improving American literacy must be to "institute a policy of imparting common information in our schools." In short, according to Hirsch - the answer to our problem lies within the list. Hirsch's book explains the importance of the need of a higher level of national literacy. His main argument is that cultural literacy is required for effective communication and the "cooperation of many people..." Communication is what Hirsch sees is essential for success in today's society. Communication is the key to equality in America. With increased cultural literacy, an egalitarian society is eventually possible. One common body of knowledge for everyone will be the glue that holds society together. Hirsch also points out the senselessness of concepts such as multi-culturalism and multi-lingualism. He acknowledges the importance of the numerous cultures and ethnicities of which United States is comprised. Hirsch mentions the "hyphenated American: the Italo-American, the Polish-American, the Afro- American, the Asian-American and so forth." He points out that he is in favor of each minority's protection, nurture, and respect; however, he strongly feels that people need to decide what "Å’American' means on the other side of the hyphen...what national values and traditions really belong to national cultural literacy." American cultural literacy should be based on our traditions -- morality of tolerance and benevolence, the Golden Rule, communal cooperation, altruism and freedom. It is in this way that Hirsch argues those in opposition of cultural literacy. Many opponents question Hirsch's view by questioning who would decide this common body of knowledge for everyone. People debate what is includedin "the list" on the basis of multiculturism. They ask, is the knowledge equally important to every citizen of the United States no matter what race, gender or religion? Hirsch responds by putting the emphasis on the other side of the hyphen - the American side. When reading Hirsch's book, I strongly agreed with his big picture of cultural literacy and agree that it is important to establish a common body of knowledge

Monday, August 19, 2019

A Worn Path Essay -- essays research papers

In the modern short story, Eudora Welty clearly develops Phoenix Jackson as a main character who indirectly manipulates other people. Phoenix, as the speaker in â€Å"A Worn Path† holds the status of an old Negro woman who continues the everyday cycle of life. Although, in reality Phoenix is an average human being, who feels she must be rewarded for living. Phoenix believes that humanity owes her something for the troubles she encounters throughout her lifetime. When Phoenix says to the hunter, â€Å"that’s as far as I walk when I come out myself, and I get something for my trouble† (paragraph 46). Incidentally, Phoenix replies to the old hunter’s question it is quite clear that she undoubtedly is expecting compensation; whether it is a pity party or a monetary gift to settle the score. Because Phoenix feels like she must abuse other people, she appears to have the power to be in control of any situation that might come her way. Throughout Welty’s â€Å"A Worn Path,† Phoenix Jackson and her actions symbolize her to be a selfish and manipulative woman. Phoenix’s obsession with power, is the basis of her idea to manipulate other people; which is clearly explained through her dialogue with the persons she comes in contact with on her journey into town. Along with Phoenix’s obsession with being pitied upon by the hunter, she also feels like she never plans to succumb to defeat. When Phoenix replies to the old man’s question concerning why she was laying in the bushes; she said, â€Å" Lying on my ...

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Anglo American Economic Geography Essay -- economics,

Discuss the intellectual history of Anglo American economic geography since the 2nd world war. Economic concepts have often been used as the foundation for geographic theory; showing a relationship between the two. When the field of economics evolves then so too does the field of economic geography. Economic geography is defined as: a field of geography that helps to describe and explain the areas where economic activities are carried out. It is centered around helping to explain the production and distribution of commodities and how resources are to be allocated and the consequences (Barnes 2009). The Second World War ceased in 1945 and after this the economies of both America and the UK changed rapidly. These economies passed through different systems; Keynesian, Marxian, Neoliberalism, and mixed an economy (Bonney 1995). This in turn meant that economic geography passed through different stages too, with the most significant change occurring directly after the war; the start of the quantitative revolution. The way that the field of economic geography changes has implication s on how the field as a whole is viewed. One of the main points is the interconnectivity with the economy; this also shows how the economy is viewed. Each period has a moment of emergence rapid efflorescence and a period of decline. To understand how economic geography has changed over the last fifty years, a brief explanation of the state of the economy should be covered Directly after the war the US economy was in a state of strong economic growth due to consumers demand increasing, this was due to there being few opportunities to consume at a desired level during the war. The US held 95% of the worlds manufacturing helping it to recover more quick... ...mic Geography. In: Leyson, A., Lee, R., Mcdowell, L. and Sunley, P. eds. 2011. The SAGE Handbook of Economic Geography. London: SAGE Publications. Bonney, R. (1995). Economic systems and state finance. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press. Hardon, J. A. (2003). The Influence of Marxism in the United States Today. [online] Available at: http://www.therealpresence.org/archives/Communism/Communism_002.htm [Accessed: 21 Feb 2014]. Scott, A. J. (2000). Economic geography: the great half-century. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 24 (4), pp. 483 - 504. Trainer, T. (2010). MARXIST THEORY; A brief Introduction. [online] Available at: https://socialsciences.arts.unsw.edu.au/tsw/Marx.html [Accessed: 21 Feb 2014]. WiseGEEK. (2010). What Is Keynesian Economics?. [online] Available at: http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-keynesian-economics.htm [Accessed: 21 Feb 2014].

Saturday, August 17, 2019

Racism: White People and South Africa Essay

Compare and contrast between racism in Malaysia and South Africa. â€Å"Racism is man’s gravest threat to man – the maximum of hatred for a minimum of reason†, quoted by Abraham J. Heschel. As we know the history of racism is long and despicable one. The journey to overcome this obstacle that has plagued us for years is just as time consuming and the effort is overwhelming. A recent survey has showed that South Africa is the highest rate of racism among all the country. So now let us analyze the racism between Malaysia and South Africa. The most notable difference between the racism in Malaysia and South Africa is the oppression on women. Till today, men in Africa still hold the traditional perspective that women are like their property and subject to their abuse. The poverty Africa could be one of the main causes why women in Africa are still undergoing such a great deal of oppression unlike women in other areas. They were paid less for a greater amount of work and less benefits too. Sometime, they were dismissed without advance notice or termination pay. Besides, South Africa has the world’s highest level of reported rape – nearly half a million each year. So it is not surprising that South Africa is often called the â€Å"rape capital of the world†. It has shown that women in Africa typically hold lower status and normally weaker than men from physical and mentally. Therefore they are easily to be oppressed and exploited by African men. In Malaysia, the position of women today has greatly improved. The Government’s commitment to promote gender equality is evidenced by several policies, administrative decision and amendments to laws that have attempted to grant equal rights to women and to remove discrimination against them. It should perhaps be acknowledged that most of the changes made were in response to lobbying by women through unions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other women’s groups. For example, in relation to employment rights, women teachers succeeded in getting the Government to adopt the principle of equal pay for equal work in 1967. Yet another difference between the racism in two different countries is discrimination of different race. In South Africa, there is a prohibiting marriage between white people and people of other races. It considers as â€Å"unlawful racial intercourse† and â€Å"any immoral or indecent act† between a white person and an African, Indian or coloured person. Blacks were not allowed to run businesses in those areas designated as â€Å"white South Africa† without a permit. They were supposed to move to their homelands and set up businesses and practices there. Transport and civil facilities were segregated. Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses at white ones. Trains, hospitals and ambulances were segregated. Even though black people were not allowed to employ white people in white South Africa. Since Datuk Seri Najib Tun Abdul Razak became the sixth Prime Minister, he introduced a concept of solidarity, which is One Malaysia. 1 Malaysia brought the aspirations to improve race relations to ensure that the people of Malaysia to forge closer unity. The basic thing that needs to be created in the spirit of solidarity is a feeling of respect, sincerity and mutual trust between the races. Therefore, our citizens give priority to the interests of national allegiance and loyalty to the people and solve their own group. For example, one Indian got hit by a reckless car while he was playing outside the house. Some of neighbors (few Chinese but mostly Malays) quickly rushed for help, and they really got angry with the driver and almost smacked him! Although the neighbors are Malays, they stood for an Indian neighbor. Furthermore, the difference of racism between Malaysia and South Africa is the education system. South Africa has a high-cost, low-performance education system that does not compare favorably with education systems in other African countries, or in similar developing economies. There is a multitude of well-publicized problems, including a shortage of teachers, under qualified teachers and poor teacher performance. In the classroom, this results in poor learner standards and results, a lack of classroom discipline and is exacerbated by insufficient resources and inadequate infrastructure. So it is not surprising that many South Africans are low-educated and paid for little salaries. Malaysia’s educational system generally promotes surface and passive learning instead of deep and active learning which are crucial for creating a quality learning environment. The products of our school system are generally ill-prepared either for higher education work or life in general. As we know, our students lack critical and creative thinking skills because our educational system promotes conformity and uniformity. Therefore, a lot of step in transforming our education system are done. For example, one of the crucial steps is begin with the end in our mind. So, Malaysian students and graduates can possess adequate disciplinary knowledge, be self-confident and achievement-oriented persuasive and effective communicators. In conclusion, here are the main three differences between the racism in Africa and Malaysia. Even though racism is wrong, it is still being practiced in this country and in others. The origins are obscure, but it most likely had something to do with the fact that early humankind thought â€Å"black† (because it resembled â€Å"night†) was bad and â€Å"white† (because it resembled â€Å"day†) was good. But our enlightened society has more discernment than this, and we know that a person is neither good nor bad depending on the color of their skin.

Friday, August 16, 2019

Perception and Sensation

In psychology we tend to study sensation due to our ways of organizing and responding to the world depend a great deal on the way which our senses filter or select from the stimuli, or information, around us. We come to know our world primarily through our senses, and often what we sense often affect our behaviour. Definition of sensation: Any fundamental experience of events from within or without the body that results from simulation of some receptor system. Sensation is distinguished from perception in that perception requires the interpretation of a sensation.This distinction is somewhat arbitrary(absolute), however, because some perception of a sensation must occur before awareness of that sensation is possible. To put it in a simpler explanation: Although intimately related, sensation and perception play two complementary but different roles in how we interpret our world. Sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. T his information is sent to our brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us.Simple example of sensation and perception are: Sensation: Physical response. Information which is gathered through one of the human five senses, like touching a guitar string and the feeling of the string structure. Perception: Our mental response towards the sensation, like seeing an electric guitar and thinking of rock and roll. So how do sensation and perception work together? When sensation occurs, the sensory organs absorbs energy from a physical stimulus in the environment and then the sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain.And then perception follows via the brain process of organizing the information and translate it into something â€Å"meaningful†. The term â€Å"meaningful† in the above context is how the brain determine whether the information is important and whether it should be focused on. We can determine this by using a process called Psychophysics. Psychophysics can be defined as, the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience. In psychophysics there are two process that can be done to measure the importance of the information that have been gather, Selective Attention and Perceptual Expectancy.Selective Attention is a process of discriminating between what is important and is irrelevant and is influenced by motivation. For example, students in a lecture class should be focusing on what the lecturer is saying and the overheads that are being presented. When a student who doesn't take the lecture walk by the classroom, the student may be focusing on the people in the room, who is the teacher, etc and not the same thing the student in the class. Perceptual Expectancy is how we perceive the world is a function of our past experience,culture and our biological makeup.For i nstances, as a local Malaysian city dweller, when I look at a highway I expect to see cars, trucks, etc, NOT airplanes. But for someone from the rural area, aboriginal folks perhaps, who have different experiences and history, they might not have any idea what to expect and thus be surprise when they see cars go driving by. A simpler explanation for perceptual expectancy can be describe with the situation when we look at a picture or painting perhaps, we might not have any idea what the message that they are trying to convey.But if someone tells you about it, you might be begin to see things in the picture or painting that you were unable to see before. Here is an experiment to test perceptual expectancy. From the picture given above, can you find the hidden tiger? Anyway, in order to measure these psychophysics events psychologist use threshold. A threshold is a dividing line between what has detectable energy and what does not. For example, no matter how bright X-ray light is, you annot see it or although there are some delicate instruments that mighth be able to sense the light from a match struck on a mountaintop 50 miles away on a dark night, your eyes would not be able to. The amount of energy required to create a noticeable sensation is called absolute threshold. A certain amount of energy is required before you can detect a stimulus hence, the existing energy must fluctuate a certain amount before you can detect a certain change in the a stimulus. This minimum amount of energy fluctuation is known as difference threshold. It can also called the Just Noticeable Difference (JND).Difference threshold also can change depending on the person’s physical condition or motivation or on the qualities of the stimulus being tested. For example, when you pick up a 5kg weight and then a 10kg weight, you can feel a big difference between those two. However if you pick up a 50kg and then 55kg, it is much more difficult to feel the difference. Weber’s Law stated that the larger or the stronger the stimulus, the larger or the change required for an observer to notice a difference. The smallest difference in intensity between two stimuli that can be readily detected is a constant fraction of the original stimulus.Last but not least there is the Signal Detection Theory where the detection of a stimulus involves some decision making process as well as sensory process. Additionally both sensory and decision making process are influenced by many more factors than just intensify. * Noise:- The factors of how much outside interference that exist that might influence the sensory and decision making process. * Criterion:- The level of assurance that you decide must be met before you take action. It involves higher mental processes. You set the criterion based on expectation and consequences of inaccuracy.Most people consider that there are five ways to sense, seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and touching. In reality, there are any more than just these five but ultimately these five are consider the main or standard senses. VISION. Researchers have studied vision more thoroughly than the other senses. Because people need sight to perform most daily activities, the sense of sight has evolved to be highly sophisticated. Vision, however, would not exist without the presence of light. Light is electromagnetic radiation that travels in the form of waves.Light is emitted from the sun, stars, fire, and light bulbs. Most other objects just reflect light. The usual vision system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length and amplitude: * wave length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs) – affects color perception (ex. , red=approx 700, yellow approx 600) * wave amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave) – affects brightness perception. People experience light as having three features: color,brightness, and saturation.These three types of experiences come from three corresponding characteristics of light waves: * The color or hue of light depends on its wavelength, the distance between the peaks of its waves. * The brightness of light is related to intensity or the amount of light an object emits or reflects. Brightness depends on light wave amplitude, the height of light waves. Brightness is also somewhat influenced by wavelength. Yellow light tends to look brighter than reds or blues. * Saturation or colorfulness depends on light complexity, the range of wavelengths in light. The color of a single wavelength is pure spectral color.Such lights are called fully saturated. Outside a laboratory, light is rarely pure or of a single wavelength. Light is usually a mixture of several different wavelengths. The greater number of spectral colors in a light, the lower the saturation. Light of mixed wavelengths looks duller or paler than pure light. Wavelength ——; Color| Amplitude —— ; Brightness| Complexity ——; SaturationRainbows and LightsWhite light: Completely unsaturated. It is a mixture of all wavelengths of light. The visible spectrum: Includes the colors of the rainbow, which are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.Ultraviolet light: The kind of light that causes sunburns. It has a wavelength somewhat shorter than the violet light at the end of the visible spectrum. Infrared radiation: Has a wavelength somewhat longer than the red light at the other end of the visible spectrum. STRUCTURE OF THE EYEThe process of vision cannot be understood without some knowledge about the structure of the eye: * The sclera is the white, elastic outer covering of the eye. * The cornea is the transparent outer bulge in front of the eye through which light waves pass * The iris is the pigmented muscular membrane that control the aperture in the center of the pupil.The iris determines the amount of light that enters the eye. * The iris surround s an opening called the pupil, the dark circular aperture in the center of the iris of the eye that admits light. The pupil can get bigger or smaller to allow different amounts of light through the lens to the back of the eye. In bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict light intake; in dim light, the pupil expands to increase light intake. * The lens is the transparent biconvex structure of the eye behind the iris and pupil that focuses light rays entering through the pupil to form an image on the retina.The lens can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away. This process is called accommodation. * Light passing through the cornea, pupil, and lens falls onto the retina at the back of the eye. The retina is the delicate multilayer light sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball It consists of layers of ganglion cells,bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The image that falls on the retina is always upside down. * The ganglio n cells are the nerve cells of the retina, which receive impulses from rods and cones via the bipolar cells and transmit those impulses to the brain. Optic nerve are the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the retina and the brain. * Bipolar cells are the cells that collect and consolidate visual information. A particular bipolar cell is either rod driven or cone driven, meaning that the cell receives information from either groups of rods or groups of cones but never from a minute of the two. Bipolar cells transmit to the ganglion cells a ratio derived from the signals they receive from the photoreceptors and nearby horizontal cells. * Horizontal cells are the retina cells with short dendrites and long axons that extend horizontally, linking rods and cones with other cones.Each of these cells fires according to the average light intensity generated by the photoreceptors in its immediate neighbourhood. Horizontal cells are thought to influence the opposing color color processes(such a s red and green, blue and yellow) are probably responsible, in part for negative afterimages and other opponent-process effects. * Amacrine cells are the large retinal neurons that connect ganglion cells laterally. There are at least 30 different varieties of amacrine cells. Image reflection appears to be one of their many functions. The functions of most amacrine cells are unknown. The center of the retina, the fovea, is where vision is sharpest. This explains why people look directly at an object they want to inspect. This causes the image to fall onto the fovea, where vision is clearest. EYE TROUBLENearsightedness is the inability to clearly see distant objects. Farsightedness is the inability to clearly see close objects. A cataract is a lens that has become opaque, resulting in impaired vision. Blind spot is the region of the retina where the optic nerve attaches and where there are no photoreceptors. The fovea is also a blind spot when something is viewed in very dim light.Rod s and ConesThe retina has millions of photoreceptors called rods and cones. Photoreceptors are specialized cells that respond to light stimuli. There are many more rods than cones. The long, narrow cells, called rods, are highly sensitive to light and allow vision even in dim conditions. There are no rods in the fovea, which is why vision becomes hazy in dim light. However, the area just outside the fovea contains many rods, and these allow peripheral vision. Because rods are so sensitive to light, in dim lighting conditions peripheral vision is sharper than direct vision.Example: People can often see a star in the night sky if they look a little to the side of the star instead of directly at it. Looking to the side utilizes peripheral vision and makes the image of the star fall onto the periphery of the retina, which contains most of the rods. Cones are cone-shaped cells that can distinguish between different wavelengths of light, allowing people to see in color. Cones don’t work well in dim light, however, which is why people have trouble distinguishing colors at night. The fovea has only cones, but as the distance from the fovea increases, the umber of cones decreases. | Feature| Rods| Cones| Shape| Long and narrow| Cone-shaped| Sensitivity to light| High: help people to see in dim light| Low: help people to see in bright light| Help color vision| No| Yes| Present in fovea| No| Yes| Abundant in periphery of retina| Yes| No| Allow peripheral vision| Yes| No| ADAPTATION TO LIGHT Dark adaptation is the process by which receptor cells sensitize to light, allowing clearer vision in dim light. Light adaptation is the process by which receptor cells desensitize to light, allowing clearer vision in bright light. Connection to the Optic NerveRods and cones connect via synapses to bipolar neurons, which then connect to other neurons called ganglion cells. The axons of all the ganglion cells in the retina come together to make up the optic nerve. The optic nerv e connects to the eye at a spot in the retina called the optic disk. The optic disk is also called the blind spot because it has no rods or cones. Any image that falls on the blind spot disappears from view. Transmission of Visual Information Visual information travels from the eye to the brain as follows: * Light reflected from an object hits the retina’s rods and cones. Rods and cones send neural signals to the bipolar cells. * Bipolar cells send signals to the ganglion cells. * Ganglion cells send signals through the optic nerve to the brain. Bipolar and ganglion cells gather and compress information from a large number of rods and cones. The rods and cones that send information to a particular bipolar or ganglion cell make up that cell’s receptive field. Ganglion cell axons from the inner half of each eye cross over to the opposite half of the brain. This means that each half of the brain receives signals from both eyes.Signals from the eyes’ left sides go t o the left side of the brain, and signals from the eyes’ right sides go to the right side of the brain. The diagram below illustrates this process. Visual Processing in the Brain After being processed in the thalamus and different areas of the brain, visual signals eventually reach the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain’s cerebrum. In the 1960s, David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel demonstrated that highly specialized cells called feature detectors respond to these visual signals in the primary visual cortex.Feature detectors are neurons that respond to specific features of the environment, such as lines and edges. From the visual cortex, visual signals often travel on to other parts of the brain, where more processing occurs. Cells deeper down the visual processing pathway are even more specialized than those in the visual cortex. Psychologists theorize that perception occurs when a large number of neurons in different parts of the brain activate. Thes e neurons may respond to various features of the perceived object such as edges, angles, shapes, movement, brightness, and texture.Color Vision Objects in the world seem to be brightly colored, but they actually have no color at all. Red cars, green leaves, and blue sweaters certainly exist—but their color is a psychological experience. Objects only produce or reflect light of different wavelengths and amplitudes. Our eyes and brains then convert this light information to experiences of color. Color vision happens because of two different processes, which occur in sequence: * The first process occurs in the retina and is explained by the trichromatic theory. The second process occurs in retinal ganglion cells and in cells in the thalamus and visual cortex. The opponent process theory explains this process. These two theories are explained below. The Trichromatic Theory Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the trichromatic theory, or Young-Helmholtz theory. This the ory states that the retina contains three types of cones, which respond to light of three different wavelengths, corresponding to red, green, or blue. Activation of these cones in different combinations and to different degrees results in the perception of other colors. Color MixingMixing lights of different colors is called additive color mixing. This process adds wavelengths together and results in more light. Mixing paints, on the other hand, is called subtractive color mixing, a process that removes wavelengths so that there is less light. If red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light were mixed, the result would be white light. If the same color paints were mixed together, the result would be a dark, muddy color. The trichromatic theory also accounts for color blindness, a hereditary condition that affects a person’s ability to distinguish between colors.Most color-blind people are dichromats, which means they are sensitive to only two of the three wavele ngths of light. Dichromats are usually insensitive either to red or green, but sometimes they cannot see blue. The Opponent Process Theory Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory. According to this theory, the visual system has receptors that react in opposite ways to three pairs of colors. The three pairs of colors are red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white. Some receptors are activated by wavelengths corresponding to red light and are turned off by wavelengths corresponding to green light.Other receptors are activated by yellow light and turned off by blue light. Still others respond oppositely to black and white. Opponent process theory explains why most people perceive four primary colors: red, green, blue, and yellow. If trichromatic theory alone fully explained color vision, people would perceive only three primary colors, and all other colors would be combinations of these three colors. However, most people think of yellow as primary rather tha n as a mixture of colors. Opponent process theory also accounts for complementary or negative afterimages.Afterimages are colors perceived after other, complementary colors are removed. Example: If Jack stares at a picture of a red square, wavelengths corresponding to red will activate the matching receptors in his visual system. For the sake of simplicity, these matching receptors can be referred to as red receptors. Anything that makes red receptors increase firing will be seen as red, so Jack will see the square as red. Anything that decreases the firing of red receptors will be seen as green. If Jack stares at the square for a while, the red receptors will get tired out and start to fire less.Then if he looks at a blank white sheet of paper, he will see a green square. The decreased firing of the red receptors produces an experience of a green afterimage. Form Perception The ability to see separate objects or forms is essential to daily functioning. Suppose a girl sees a couple in the distance with their arms around each other. If she perceived them as a four-legged, two-armed, two-headed person, she’d probably be quite disturbed. People can make sense of the world because the visual system makes sensible interpretations of the information the eyes pick up.Gestalt psychology, a school of thought that arose in Germany in the early twentieth century, explored how people organize visual information into patterns and forms. Gestalt psychologists noted that the perceived whole is sometimes more than the sum of its parts. An example of this is the phi phenomenon, or stroboscopic movement, which is an illusion of movement that happens when a series of images is presented very quickly, one after another. Example: The phi phenomenon is what gives figures and objects in movies the illusion of movement.In reality, a movie is a series of still images presented in rapid succession. Gestalt Principles Gestalt psychologists described several principles people use to make sense of what they see. These principles include figure and ground, proximity, closure, similarity, continuity, and simplicity: * Figure and ground: One of the main ways people organize visual information is to divide what they see into figure and ground. Figure is what stands out, and ground is the background in which the figure stands. People may see an object as figure if it appears larger or brighter relative to the background.They may also see an object as figure if it differs noticeably from the background or if it moves against a static environment. * Proximity: When objects lie close together, people tend to perceive the objects as a group. For example, in the graphic below, people would probably see these six figures as two groups of three. * Closure: People tend to interpret familiar, incomplete forms as complete by filling in gaps. People can easily recognize the following figure as the letter k in spite of the gaps. * Similarity: People tend to group similar obje cts together.In the next figure, people could probably distinguish the letter T because similar dots are seen as a group. * Continuity: When people see interrupted lines and patterns, they tend to perceive them as being continuous by filling in gaps. The next figure is seen as a circle superimposed on a continuous line rather than two lines connected to a circle. * Simplicity: People tend to perceive forms as simple, symmetrical figures rather than as irregular ones. This figure is generally seen as one triangle superimposed on another rather than a triangle with an angular piece attached to it. Depth PerceptionTo figure out the location of an object, people must be able to estimate their distance from that object. Two types of cues help them to do this: binocular cues and monocular cues. Binocular Cues Binocular cues are cues that require both eyes. These types of cues help people to estimate the distance of nearby objects. There are two kinds of binocular cues: retinal disparity a nd convergence. * Retinal disparity marks the difference between two images. Because the eyes lie a couple of inches apart, their retinas pick up slightly different images of objects. Retinal disparity increases as the eyes get closer to an object.The brain uses retinal disparity to estimate the distance between the viewer and the object being viewed. * Convergence is when the eyes turn inward to look at an object close up. The closer the object, the more the eye muscles tense to turn the eyes inward. Information sent from the eye muscles to the brain helps to determine the distance to the object. Monocular Cues Monocular cues are cues that require only one eye. Several different types of monocular cues help us to estimate the distance of objects: interposition, motion parallax, relative size and clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and light and shadow. Interposition: When one object is blocking part of another object, the viewer sees the blocked object as being farther a way. * Motion parallax or relative motion: When the viewer is moving, stationary objects appear to move in different directions and at different speeds depending on their location. Relatively close objects appear to move backward. The closer the object, the faster it appears to move. Distant objects appear to move forward. The further away the object, the slower it appears to move. * Relative size: People see objects that make a smaller image on the retina as farther away. Relative clarity: Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects. * Texture gradient: Smaller objects that are more thickly clustered appear farther away than objects that are spread out in space. * Linear perspective: Parallel lines that converge appear far away. The more the lines converge, the greater the perceived distance. * Light and shadow: Patterns of light and shadow make objects appear three-dimensional, even though images of objects on the retina are two-dimensi onal. Creating PerspectiveArtists use monocular cues to give a three-dimensional appearance to two-dimensional pictures. For instance, if an artist wanted to paint a landscape scene with a straight highway on it, she would show the edges of the highway as two parallel lines gradually coming together to indicate that the highway continues into the distance. If she wanted to paint cars on the highway, she would paint bigger cars if she wanted them to seem closer and smaller cars if she wanted them to seem farther away. Perceptual Constancy Another important ability that helps people make sense of the world is perceptual constancy.Perceptual constancy is the ability to recognize that an object remains the same even when it produces different images on the retina. Example: When a man watches his wife walk away from him, her image on his retina gets smaller and smaller, but he doesn’t assume she’s shrinking. When a woman holds a book in front of her face, its image is a rec tangle. However, when she puts it down on the table, its image is a trapezoid. Yet she knows it’s the same book. Although perceptual constancy relates to other senses as well, visual constancy is the most studied phenomenon.Different kinds of visual constancies relate to shape, color, size, brightness, and location. * Shape constancy: Objects appear to have the same shape even though they make differently shaped retinal images, depending on the viewing angle. * Size constancy: Objects appear to be the same size even though their images get larger or smaller as their distance decreases or increases. Size constancy depends to some extent on familiarity with the object. For example, it is common knowledge that people don’t shrink. Size constancy also depends on perceived distance.Perceived size and perceived distance are strongly related, and each influences the other. * Brightness constancy: People see objects as having the same brightness even when they reflect differen t amounts of light as lighting conditions change. * Color constancy: Different wavelengths of light are reflected from objects under different lighting conditions. Outdoors, objects reflect more light in the blue range of wavelengths, and indoors, objects reflect more light in the yellow range of wavelengths. Despite this, people see objects as having the same color whether they are outdoors or indoors because of two factors.One factor is that the eyes adapt quickly to different lighting conditions. The other is that the brain interprets the color of an object relative to the colors of nearby objects. In effect, the brain cancels out the extra blueness outdoors and the extra yellowness indoors. * Location constancy: Stationary objects don’t appear to move even though their images on the retina shift as the viewer moves around. Visual Illusions The brain uses Gestalt principles, depth perception cues, and perceptual constancies to make hypotheses about the world. However, the brain sometimes misinterprets information from the senses and makes incorrect hypotheses.The result is an optical illusion. An illusion is a misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus. Illusions can occur in other senses, but most research has been done on visual illusions. In the famous Muller-Lyer illusion shown here, the vertical line on the right looks longer than the line on the left, even though the two lines are actually the same length. This illusion is probably due to misinterpretation of depth perception cues. Because of the attached diagonal lines, the vertical line on the left looks like the near edge of a building, and the vertical line on the right looks like the far edge of a room.The brain uses distance cues to estimate size. The retinal images of both lines are the same size, but since one appears nearer, the brain assumes that it must be smaller. Perceptual Set The Muller-Lyer illusion doesn’t fool everyone equally. Researchers have found that people who live i n cities experience a stronger illusion than people who live in forests. In other words, city-dwelling people see the lines as more different in size. This could be because buildings and rooms surround city dwellers, which prepares them to see the lines as inside and outside edges of buildings.The difference in the strength of the illusion could also be due to variations in the amount of experience people have with making three-dimensional interpretations of two-dimensional drawings. Cultural differences in the tendency to see illusions illustrate the importance of perceptual set. Perceptual set is the readiness to see objects in a particular way based on expectations, experiences, emotions, and assumptions. Perceptual set influences our everyday perceptions and how we perceive reversible figures, which are ambiguous drawings that can be interpreted in more than one way.For example, people might see a vase or two faces in this famous figure, depending on what they’re led to e xpect. Selective Attention Reversible figures also illustrate the concept of selective attention, the ability to focus on some bits of sensory information and ignore others. When people focus on the white part of the figure, they see a vase, and when they focus on the black part of it, they see two faces. To use the language of Gestalt psychology, people can choose to make the vase figure and the face ground or vice versa.Selective attention allows people to carry on day-to-day activities without being overwhelmed by sensory information. Reading a book would be impossible if the reader paid attention to not only the words on the page but also all the things in his peripheral vision, all the sounds around him, all the smells in the air, all the information his brain gets about his body position, air pressure, temperature, and so on. He wouldn’t get very far with the book. Context Effects Another factor that influences perception is the context of the perceiver. People’s immediate surroundings create expectations that make them see in particular ways.Example: The figure below can be seen either as a sequence of letters, A B C, or a sequence of numbers, 12 13 14, depending on whether it is scanned across or down. HEARING Hearing, or audition, depends on the presence of sound waves, which travel much more slowly than light waves. Sound waves are changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules. The physical characteristics of sound waves influence the three psychological features of sound: loudness, pitch, and timbre. * Loudness depends on the amplitude, or height, of sound waves. The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound perceived. Amplitude is measured in decibels.The absolute threshold of human hearing is defined as 0 decibels. Loudness doubles with every 10-decibel increase in amplitude. A Whisper to a Scream The loudness of normal human conversation is about sixty decibels. A whisper is about twenty decibels. A shout right into someone ’s ear is about 115 decibels. Being exposed to sounds that are over 120 decibels, even for brief periods, can damage the auditory system. * Pitch, though influenced by amplitude, depends most on the frequency of sound waves. Frequency is the number of times per second a sound wave cycles from the highest to the lowest point.The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. Frequency is measured in hertz, or cycles per second. Frequency also affects loudness, with higher-pitched sounds being perceived as louder. Amplitude and frequency of sound waves interact to produce the experiences of loudness and pitch. What’s Audible? Humans can hear sounds that are between 20 and 20,000 hertz. * Timbre, or the particular quality of a sound, depends on thecomplexity of a sound wave. A pure tone has sound waves of only one frequency. Most sound waves are a mixture of different frequencies. The Structure of the EarKnowing the basic structure of the ear is essential to understanding ho w hearing works. The ear has three basic parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The visible part of the ear is the pinna, which collects sound waves and passes them along the auditory canal to a membrane called the eardrum. When sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates. The eardrum transmits the vibration to three bones, or ossicles, in the middle ear, which are called the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. The diagram of the ear shows how they got these names: they actually look like a hammer, an anvil, and a stirrup.In response to the vibration, these ossicles move one after another. Their function is to amplify the sound vibrations. From the ossicles, vibrations move through a membrane called the oval window to the cochlea of the inner ear. The cochlea is a coiled, fluid-filled tunnel. Inside the cochlea are receptors called cilia or hair cells that are embedded in the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane runs along the whole length of the coiled cochlea. Vib rations that reach the inner ear cause the fluid in the cochlea to move in waves. These waves in turn make the hair cells move.The movement triggers impulses in neurons that connect with the hair cells. The axons of these neurons come together to form the auditory nerve, which sends impulses from the ear to the brain. In the brain, the thalamus and the auditory cortex, which is in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum, receive auditory information. Pitch Perception Two theories explain how people distinguish the pitch of different sounds: place theory and frequency theory. Place theory explains how people discriminate high-pitched sounds that have a frequency greater than 5000 Hz.Place theory states that sound waves of different frequencies trigger receptors at different places on the basilar membrane. The brain figures out the pitch of the sound by detecting the position of the hair cells that sent the neural signal. Frequency theory explains how people discriminate low-pitched sounds that have a frequency below 1000 Hz. According to frequency theory, sound waves of different frequencies make the whole basilar membrane vibrate at different rates and therefore cause neural impulses to be sent at different rates.Pitch is determined by how fast neural signals move along to the brain. The detection of moderately pitched sounds, with a frequency between 1000 and 5000 Hz, is explained by both place theory and frequency theory. To discriminate among these sounds, the brain uses a code based both on where the neural impulses originated and how quickly neural impulses move. Locating Sounds In the same way that people use two eyes to perceive depth, people use two ears to locate the origin of sounds. The left ear receives sound waves coming from the left slightly faster than the right ear does.The signal received by the left ear may also be a little more intense than that received in the right ear, because the signal has to go around the head to enter the right ear. Locati ng a sound is difficult if both ears receive a signal of exactly the same intensity at exactly the same time, as when a sound originates from directly in front, directly behind, or directly above. Turning the head or cocking it to one side can help circumvent this difficulty. TASTE AND SMELL. Taste and smell are chemical senses. As light waves stimulate vision and sound waves stimulate sound, chemicals stimulate taste and smell. TASTETaste, or gustation, happens when chemicals stimulate receptors in the tongue and throat, on the inside of the cheeks, and on the roof of the mouth. These receptors are inside taste buds, which in turn are inside little bumps on the skin called papillae. Taste receptors have a short life span and are replaced about every ten days. For a long time, researchers believed in the existence of four tastes: salty, sweet, sour, and bitter. Recently, researchers have suggested the presence of a fifth taste called umami. The spice monosodium glutamate (MSG) has a n umami taste, as do many protein-rich foods. Taste is also strongly influenced by smell.SMELL Smell, or olfaction, happens when chemicals in the air enter the nose during the breathing process. Smell receptors lie in the top of the nasal passage. They send impulses along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb at the base of the brain. Researchers theorize that there are a great many types of olfactory receptors. People perceive particular smells when different combinations of receptors are stimulated. Remembrance of Smells Past The sense of smell is closely connected with memory. Most people have had the experience of smelling something, maybe a certain perfume or spice, and suddenly experiencing a strong emotional memory.Researchers don’t know exactly why this happens, but they theorize that smell and memory trigger each other because they are processed in neighboring regions of the brain. POSITION MOVEMENT AND BALANCE Kinesthesis is the sense of the position and movemen t of body parts. Through kinesthesis, people know where all the parts of their bodies are and how they are moving. Receptors for kinesthesis are located in the muscles, joints, and tendons. The sense of balance or equilibrium provides information about where the body exists in space.The sense of balance tells people whether they are standing up, falling in an elevator, or riding a roller coaster. The sensory system involved in balance is called the vestibular system. The main structures in the vestibular system are three fluid-filled tubes calledsemicircular canals, which are located in the inner ear. As the head moves, the fluid in the semicircular canals moves too, stimulating receptors called hair cells, which then send impulses to the brain. TOUCH he sense of touch is really a collection of several senses, encompassing pressure, pain, cold, and warmth.The senses of itch and tickle are related to pressure, and burn injuries are related to pain. Touch receptors are stimulated by m echanical, chemical, and thermal energy. Pressure seems to be the only kind of touch sense that has specific receptors. The Gate-Control Theory of Pain Researchers don’t completely understand the mechanics of pain, although they do know that processes in the injured part of the body and processes in the brain both play a role. In the 1960s, Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall proposed an important theory about pain called the gate-control theory of pain.Gate-control theorystates that pain signals traveling from the body to the brain must go through a gate in the spinal cord. If the gate is closed, pain signals can’t reach the brain. The gate isn’t a physical structure like a fence gate, but rather a pattern of neural activity that either stops pain signals or allows them to pass. Signals from the brain can open or shut the gate. For example, focusing on pain tends to increase it, whereas ignoring the pain tends to decrease it. Other signals from the skin senses can also close the gate. This process explains why massage, ice, and heat relieve pain.